Abstract
Renewable energy production is limited by the fluctuations limiting their application. Underground hydrogen storage (UHS) is one possible alternative to reduce the gap between supply and demand by storing the energy converted to hydrogen as a carrier and store it during surplus to produce it during high demand periods. The hydrogen is stored in the subsurface in geological formations containing the gas and is injected/produced via wells. There is a lack of experience associated with this technology and only a small number of projects worldwide. There are several mechanisms that can compromise the integrity of the well and generate leakage of the stored gas. This paper aims to introduce the challenges associated with well integrity of UHS. Mechanisms that can compromise well integrity and generate leaks include microbial corrosion, hydrogen blistering hydrogen-induced cracking and hydrogen embrittlement, cement degradation, elastomer failure, and caprock sealing failure. Propose well completion criteria, recommendation, and materials selection for newly constructed wells or existing wells. A comparison with more developed storage technologies aims to provide a better understanding of the limitations of hydrogen storage by comparing it to carbon dioxide (carbon capture and storage) and methane (underground gas storage). Finally, evaluation and monitoring techniques are required to see the influence of hydrogen on well integrity. Future research and development will reduce the uncertainties and limitations associated with UHS increasing its feasibility and implementation.
References
1.
EIA
, 2020
, Monthly Energy Review
, U.S. Energy Information Administration
, Washington, DC.
2.
Fronk
, B. M.
, Neal
, R.
, and Garimella
, S.
, 2010
, “Evolution of the Transition to a World Driven by Renewable Energy
,” ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol.
, 132
(2
), p. 021009
. 3.
Benato
, A.
, and Stoppato
, A.
, 2017
, “Energy and Cost Analysis of a New Packed Bed Pumped Thermal Electricity Storage Unit
,” ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol.
, 140
(2
), p. 020904
. 4.
Câmara
, R. J. B.
, Carneiro
, J. F.
, Câmara
, G. A. B.
, de Araújo
, P. S. R.
, Rocha
, P. S. D. M. V.
, and Andrade
, J. C. S.
, 2019
, “Methodology for Sub-commercial Calculation of the Potential Energy Storage Capacity of Hydrogen, Natural Gas, and Compressed Air in Salt Caves
,” ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol.
, 142
(4
), p. 042007
. 5.
Shang
, D.
, Pei
, P.
, and Zuo
, Y.
, 2020
, “Techno-Economic Feasibility Analysis of Pumped Storage Hydroelectricity in Abandoned Underground Coal Mines
,” ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol.
, 142
(12
), p. 122001
. 6.
Sharan
, P.
, Kitz
, K.
, Wendt
, D.
, McTigue
, J.
, and Zhu
, G.
, 2020
, “Using Concentrating Solar Power to Create a Geological Thermal Energy Reservoir for Seasonal Storage and Flexible Power Plant Operation
,” ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol.
, 143
(1
), p. 010906
. 7.
Das
, D.
, and Veziroǧlu
, T. N.
, 2001
, “Hydrogen Production by Biological Processes: A Survey of Literature
,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy
, 26
(1
), pp. 13
–28
. 8.
Wang
, Z.
, Roberts
, R. R.
, Naterer
, G. F.
, and Gabriel
, K. S.
, 2012
, “Comparison of Thermochemical, Electrolytic, Photoelectrolytic and Photochemical Solar-to-Hydrogen Production Technologies
,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy
, 37
(21
), pp. 16287
–16301
. 9.
Shahid
, M.
, Bidin
, N.
, Mat
, Y.
, and Ullah
, M. I.
, 2012
, “Production and Enhancement of Hydrogen From Water: A Review
,” ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol.
, 134
(3
), p. 034002
. 10.
McPherson
, M.
, Johnson
, N.
, and Strubegger
, M.
, 2018
, “The Role of Electricity Storage and Hydrogen Technologies in Enabling Global Low-Carbon Energy Transitions
,” Appl. Energy
, 216
, pp. 649
–661
. 11.
Reuß
, M.
, Grube
, T.
, Robinius
, M.
, Preuster
, P.
, Wasserscheid
, P.
, and Stolten
, D.
, 2017
, “Seasonal Storage and Alternative Carriers: A Flexible Hydrogen Supply Chain Model
,” Appl. Energy
, 200
, pp. 290
–302
. 12.
Taylor
, J. B.
, Alderson
, J. E. A.
, Kalyanam
, K. M.
, Lyle
, A. B.
, and Phillips
, L. A.
, 1986
, “Technical and Economic Assessment of Methods for the Storage of Large Quantities of Hydrogen
,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy
, 11
(1
), pp. 5
–22
. 13.
Tarkowski
, R.
, 2019
, “Underground Hydrogen Storage: Characteristics and Prospects
,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
, 105
, pp. 86
–94
. 14.
Kabuth
, A.
, Dahmke
, A.
, Beyer
, C.
, Bilke
, L.
, Dethlefsen
, F.
, Dietrich
, P.
, Duttmann
, R.
, et al, 2017
, “Energy Storage in the Geological Subsurface: Dimensioning, Risk Analysis and Spatial Planning: The ANGUS+ Project
,” Environ. Earth Sci.
, 76
(1
), p. 23
. 15.
Pudlo
, D.
, Ganzer
, L.
, Henkel
, S.
, Kühn
, M.
, Liebscher
, A.
, De Lucia
, M.
, Panfilov
, M.
, et al, 2013
, “The H2STORE Project: Hydrogen Underground Storage—A Feasible Way in Storing Electrical Power in Geological Media?
” Proceedings of the Clean Energy Systems in the Subsurface: Production, Storage and Conversion
, Berlin, Germany
, May 21–23
, Springer Series in Geomechanics and Geoengineering, Berlin, pp. 395
–412
. 16.
Pudlo
, D.
, and Henkel
, S.
, 2016
, “H2STORE and HyINTEGER—Studies on the Effect of Hydrogen Storage in (PORE) Underground Gas Reservoirs—An Overview
,” Proceedings of the 3rd HIPS-NET Workshop
, Brussels, Belgium
, June 23–24
, p. 13
.17.
Simon
, J.
, Ferriz
, A. M.
, and Correas
, L. C.
, 2015
, “HyUnder—Hydrogen Underground Storage at Large Scale: Case Study Spain
,” Energy Procedia
, 73
, pp. 136
–144
. 18.
RAG Austria
, 2020
, “Underground Sun Storage Final Report
,” 2017.19.
ISO 16530-1
, 2017
, “Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries—Well Integrity—Part 1: Life Cycle Governance
.”20.
NORSOK D-010
, 2013
, “Well Integrity in Drilling and Well Operations
,” October 2010.21.
Kiran
, R.
, Teodoriu
, C.
, Dadmohammadi
, Y.
, Nygaard
, R.
, Wood
, D.
, Mokhtari
, M.
, and Salehi
, S.
, 2017
, “Identification and Evaluation of Well Integrity and Causes of Failure of Well Integrity Barriers (A Review)
,” J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng.
, 45
, pp. 511
–526
. 22.
Loto
, C. A.
, 2017
, “Microbiological Corrosion: Mechanism, Control and Impact—A Review
,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
, 92
(9–12
), pp. 4241
–4252
. 23.
Iverson
, W. P.
, 1987
, “Microbial Corrosion of Metals
,” Adv. Appl. Microbiol.
, 32
, pp. 1
–36
. 24.
Boopathy
, R.
, and Daniels
, L.
, 1991
, “Effect of pH on Anaerobic Mild Steel Corrosion by Methanogenic Bacteria
,” Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
, 57
(7
), pp. 2104
–2108
. 25.
Rickard
, D.
, 2012
, “Sedimentary Iron Biogeochemistry
,” Dev. Sedimentol.
, 65
, pp. 85
–119
. 26.
Lovley
, D. R.
, and Phillips
, E. J. P.
, 1986
, “Organic-Matter Mineralization With Reduction of Ferric Iron in Anaerobic Sediments
,” Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
, 51
(4
), pp. 683
–689
. 27.
Condon
, J. B.
, and Schober
, T.
, 1993
, “Hydrogen Bubbles in Metals
,” J. Nucl. Mater.
, 207
, pp. 1
–24
. 28.
Reitenbach
, V.
, Ganzer
, L.
, Albrecht
, D.
, and Hagemann
, B.
, 2015
, “Influence of Added Hydrogen on Underground Gas Storage: A Review of Key Issues
,” Environ. Earth Sci.
, 73
(11
), pp. 6927
–6693
. 29.
Ghosh
, G.
, Rostron
, P.
, Garg
, R.
, and Panday
, A.
, 2018
, “Hydrogen Induced Cracking of Pipeline and Pressure Vessel Steels: A Review
,” Eng. Fract. Mech.
, 199
, pp. 609
–618
. 30.
Edyvean
, R. G. J.
, Benson
, J.
, Thomas
, C. J.
, Beech
, I. B.
, and Videla
, H. A.
, 1997
, “Biological Influences on Hydrogen Effects in Steel in Seawater
,” Corrosion97
, New Orleans, LA
, Mar. 9
, p. 206
.31.
Strazisar
, B.
, Kutchko
, B.
, and Huerta
, N.
, 2009
, “Chemical Reactions of Wellbore Cement Under CO2 Storage Conditions: Effects of Cement Additives
,” Energy Procedia
, 1
(1
), pp. 3603
–3607
. 32.
Lécolier
, E.
, Rivereau
, A.
, Ferrer
, N.
, Audibert
, A.
, and Longaygue
, X.
, 2010
, “Durability of Oilwell Cement Formulations Aged in H2S-Containing Fluids
,” SPE Drill. Completion
, 25
(1
), pp. 90
–95
. 33.
Santra
, A.
, Reddy
, B. R.
, Liang
, F.
, and Fitzgerald
, R.
, 2009
, “Reaction of CO2 With Portland Cement at Down-Hole Conditions and the Role of Pozzolanic Supplements
,” Proceedings of the SPE International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry
, Woodlands, TX,
, Apr. 20–22
, p. 121103. 34.
Teodoriu
, C.
, Reinicke
, K. M.
, Fichter
, C.
, Wehling
, P.
, and Clausthal
, T. U.
, 2010
, “Investigations on Casing-Cement Interaction With Application to Gas and CO2 Storage Wells
,” Proceedings of the SPE EUROPEC/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition
, Barcelona, Spain
, June 14
. 35.
Kutchko Duguid
, A.
, and Scherer
, G.
, 2010
, “Degradation of Oilwell Cement Due to Exposure to Carbonated Brine
,” Int. J. Greenhouse Gas Control
, 4
(3
), pp. 546
–560
. 36.
Kutchko
, B. G.
, Strazisar
, B. R.
, Hawthorne
, S. B.
, Lopano
, C. L.
, Miller
, D. J.
, Hakala
, A.
, and Guthrie
, G. D.
, 2011
, “H2S–CO2 Reaction With Hydrated Class H Well Cement: Acid-Gas Injection and CO2 Co-sequestration
,” Int. J. Greenhouse Gas Control
, 5
(4
), pp. 880
–888
. 37.
Collepardi
, M.
, 2003
, “A State-of-the-Art Review on Delayed Ettringite Attack on Concrete
,” Cem. Concr. Compos.
, 25
(1–5
), pp. 401
–407
. 38.
Truche
, L.
, Jodin-Caumon
, M. C.
, Lerouge
, C.
, Berger
, G.
, Mosser-Ruck
, R.
, Giffaut
, E.
, and Michau
, N.
, 2013
, “Sulphide Mineral Reactions in Clay-Rich Rock Induced by High Hydrogen Pressure. Application to Disturbed or Natural Settings up to 250 °C and 30 bar
,” Chem. Geol.
, 351
, pp. 217
–228
. 39.
Patel
, H.
, Salehi
, S.
, Ahmed
, R.
, and Teodoriu
, C.
, 2019
, “Review of Elastomer Seal Assemblies in Oil & Gas Wells: Performance T Evaluation, Failure Mechanisms, and Gaps in Industry Standards
,” J. Pet. Sci. Eng.
, 179
, pp. 1046
–1062
. 40.
Campion
, R. P.
, Thomson
, B.
, and Harris
, J. A.
, 2005
, “Elastomers for Fluid Containment in Offshore Oil and Gas Production: Guidelines and Review
,” Technical Report No. RR-320, MERL Ltd for the Health and Safety Executive, UK
.41.
Salehi
, S.
, Ezeakacha
, C. P.
, Kwatia
, G.
, and Ahmed
, R.
, 2019
, “Performance Verification of Elastomer Materials in Corrosive Gas and Liquid Condition
,” Polym. Test.
, 75
, pp. 48
–63
. 42.
Fernández
, C.
, and Castaño
, P.
, 2016
, “Compatibility Behavior of Elastomers for PCP Applications
,” CORROSION 2016
, NACE International
, Vancouver, British Columbia
, NACE-2016-7106.43.
Dajiang
, Z.
, Yuanhua
, L.
, Huali
, Z.
, Yufei
, L.
, Lin
, Z.
, and Kuanhai
, D.
, 2017
, “Experimental Studies on CO2 Corrosion of Rubber Materials for Packer Under Compressive Stress in Gas Wells
,” Eng. Failure Anal.
, 80
, pp. 11
–23
. 44.
Amid
, A.
, Mignard
, D.
, and Wilkinson
, M.
, 2016
, “Seasonal Storage of Hydrogen in a Depleted Natural Gas Reservoir
,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy
, 41
(12
), pp. 5549
–5558
. 45.
Carden
, P. O.
, and Paterson
, L.
, 1979
, “Physical, Chemical and Energy Aspects of Underground Hydrogen Storage
,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy
, 4
(6
), pp. 559
–569
. 46.
Zivar
, D.
, Kumar
, S.
, and Foroozesh
, J.
, 2020
, “Underground Hydrogen Storage: A Comprehensive Review
,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy.
, 46
(45
), 23436
–23462
. 47.
Heinemann
, N.
, Booth
, M. G.
, Haszeldine
, R. S.
, Wilkinson
, M.
, Scafidi
, J.
, and Edlmann
, K.
, 2018
, “Hydrogen Storage in Porous Geological Formations—Onshore Play Opportunities in the Midland Valley (Scotland, UK)
,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy
, 43
(45
), pp. 20861
–20874
. 48.
Hemme
, C.
, and Van Berk
, W.
, 2018
, “Hydrogeochemical Modeling to Identify Potential Risks of Underground Hydrogen Storage in Depleted Gas Fields
,” Appl. Sci.
, 8
(11
), p. 2282
. 49.
Shi
, Z.
, Jessen
, K.
, and Tsotsis
, T. T.
, 2020
, “Impacts of the Subsurface Storage of Natural Gas and Hydrogen Mixtures
,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy
, 45
(15
), pp. 8757
–8773
. 50.
Lord
, A. S.
, Kobos
, P. H.
, and Borns
, D. J.
, 2014
, “Geologic Storage of Hydrogen: Scaling Up To Meet City Transportation Demands
,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy
, 39
(28
), pp. 15570
–15582
. 51.
Michalski
, J.
, Bünger
, U.
, Crotogino
, F.
, Donadei
, S.
, Schneider
, G. S.
, Pregger
, T.
, Cao
, K. K.
, and Heide
, D.
, 2017
, “Hydrogen Generation by Electrolysis and Storage in Salt Caverns: Potentials, Economics and Systems Aspects With Regard to the German Energy Transition
,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy
, 42
(19
), pp. 13427
–13443
. 52.
Sainz-Garcia
, A.
, Abarca
, E.
, Rubi
, V.
, and Grandia
, F.
, 2017
, “Assessment of Feasible Strategies for Seasonal Underground Hydrogen Storage in a Saline Aquifer
,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy
, 42
(26
), pp. 16657
–16666
. 53.
Hirata
, K.
, Iikubo
, S.
, Koyama
, M.
, Tsuzaki
, K.
, and Ohtani
, H.
, 2018
, “First-Principles Study on Hydrogen Diffusivity in BCC, FCC, and HCP Iron
,” Metall. Mater. Trans. A
, 49
(10
), pp. 5015
–5022
. 54.
San Marchi
, C.
, Somerday
, B. P.
, Tang
, X.
, and Schiroky
, G. H.
, 2008
, “Effects of Alloy Composition and Strain Hardening on Tensile Fracture of Hydrogen-Precharged Type 316 Stainless Steels
,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy
, 33
(2
), pp. 889
–904
. 55.
Bai
, M.
, Song
, K.
, Sun
, Y.
, He
, M.
, Li
, Y.
, and Sun
, J.
, 2014
, “An Overview of Hydrogen Underground Storage Technology and Prospects in China
,” J. Pet. Sci. Eng.
, 124
, pp. 132
–136
. 56.
Bai
, M.
, Sun
, J.
, Song
, K.
, Li
, L.
, and Qiao
, Z.
, 2015
, “Well Completion and Integrity Evaluation for CO2 Injection Wells
,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
, 45
, pp. 556
–564
. 57.
Crotogino
, F.
, 1995
, “SMRI Reference for External Well Mechanical Integrity Testing/Performance, Data Evaluation and Assessment
,” Proceedings of the SMRI Spring Meeting Houston
, Houston, TX
.58.
Jones
, R. R.
, and Carpenter
, R. B.
, 1991
, “New Latex, Expanding Thixotropic Cement Systems Improve Job Performance and Reduce Costs
,” Proceedings of the International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry
, Anaheim, CA
, Feb. 20–22
. 59.
Nygaard
, R.
, and Lavoie
, R.
, 2010
, “Well Integrity and Workover Candidates for Existing Wells in the Wabamun Area CO2 Sequestration Project (WASP)
,” Proceedings of the Canadian Unconventional Resources and International Petroleum Conference
, Calgary, Alberta
, Oct. 19–21
. 60.
Zhong
, A.
, Johnson
, M.
, Kohn
, G.
, and Saleh
, M.
, 2015
, “Performance Evaluation of a Large Bore Expandable Liner Hanger for Field Operations in the Gulf of Mexico
,” Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference
, Houston, TX
, May 4–7
. 61.
Ahmed
, S.
, Patel
, H.
, and Salehi
, S.
, 2020
, “Numerical Modeling and Experimental Study of Elastomer Seal Assembly in Downhole Wellbore Equipment: Effect of Material and Chemical Swelling
,” Polym. Test.
, 89
, p. 106608
. 62.
Ottesen
, S.
, and Kwakwa
, K. A.
, 1991
, “A Multidisciplinary Approach to In-Situ Stress Determination and Its Application to Wellbore Stability Analysis
,” Proceedings of the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference
, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
, Mar. 11–14
. 63.
Hollis
, A. P.
, 1984
, “Some Petroleum Engineering Considerations in the Changeover of the Rough Gas Field to the Storage Mode
,” J. Pet. Technol.
, 36
(5
), pp. 797
–804
. 64.
Pfeiffer
, W. T.
, and Bauer
, S.
, 2015
, “Subsurface Porous Media Hydrogen Storage—Scenario Development and Simulation
,” Energy Procedia
, 76
, pp. 565
–572
. 65.
King
, G. E.
, and Valencia
, R. T.
, 2014
, “Environmental Risk and Well Integrity of Plugged and Abandoned Wells
,” Proceedings of the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition
, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
, Oct. 27–29
. 66.
Loizzo
, M.
, and Sharma
, S.
, 2008
, “Assessing Long-Term CO2 Containment Performance: Cement Evaluation in Otway CRC-1
,” Proceedings of the SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition
, Perth, Australia
, Oct. 20–22
. 67.
Lockyear
, C. F.
, Ryan
, D. F.
, and Gunningham
, M. M.
, 1990
, “Cement Channeling: How to Predict and Prevent
,” SPE Drill. Eng.
, 5
(3
), pp. 201
–208
. 68.
Thiercelin
, M. J.
, Dargaud
, B.
, Baret
, J. F.
, and Rodriquez
, W. J.
, 1998
, “Cement Design Based on Cement Mechanical Response
,” SPE Drill. Completion
, 13
(4
), pp. 266
–273
. 69.
Mainguy
, M.
, Longuemare
, P.
, Audibert
, A.
, and Lecolier
, E.
, 2007
, “Analyzing the Risk or Well Plug Failure After Abandonment
,” Oil Gas Sci. Technol.
, 62
(3
), pp. 311
–324
. 70.
Bai
, M.
, Zhang
, Z.
, and Fu
, X.
, 2016
, “A Review on Well Integrity Issues for CO2 Geological Storage and Enhanced Gas Recovery
,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
, 59
, pp. 920
–926
. 71.
Edlmann
, K.
, Bensabat
, J.
, Niemi
, A.
, Haszeldine
, R. S.
, and McDermott
, C. I.
, 2016
, “Lessons Learned From Using Expert Elicitation to Identify, Assess and Rank the Potential Leakage Scenarios at the Heletz Pilot CO2 Injection Site
,” Int. J. Greenhouse Gas Control
, 49
, pp. 473
–487
. 72.
Kleinitz
, W.
, and Boehling
, E.
, 2005
, “Underground Gas Storage in Porous Media—Operating Experience With Bacteria on Gas Quality
,” Proceedings of the SPE Europec/EAGE Annual Conference
, Madrid, Spain
, June 13–16
. 73.
Barlet-Gouedard
, V.
, Rimmele
, G.
, Goffe
, B.
, and Porcherie
, O.
, 2006
, “Mitigation Strategies for the Risk of CO2 Migration Through Wellbores
,” Proceedings of the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference
, Miami, FL
, Feb. 21–23
. 74.
Ahmed
, S.
, Salehi
, S.
, Ezeakacha
, C.
, and Teodoriu
, C.
, 2019
, “Experimental Investigation of Elastomers in Downhole Seal Elements: Implications for Safety
,” Polym. Test.
, 76
, pp. 350
–364
. 75.
Alaref
, O.
, Rourke
, M.
, Khabibullin
, M.
, and Yakupov
, A.
, 2016
, “Comprehensive Well Integrity Solutions in Challenging Environments Using Latest Technology Innovations
,” Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference Asia
, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
, Mar. 22–25
. 76.
van Kuijk
, R.
, Zeroug
, S.
, Froelich
, B.
, Allouche
, M.
, Bose
, S.
, Miller
, D.
, Le Calvez
, J. L.
, Schoepf
, V.
, and Pagnin
, A.
, 2005
, “A Novel Ultrasonic Cased-Hole Imager for Enhanced Cement Evaluation
,” Proceedings of the International Petroleum Technology Conference
, Doha, Qatar
, Nov. 21–23
. 77.
de Souza
, P. C.
, Solon
, T.
, and da Silva Araujo
, R. G.
, 1997
, “New Approach on Cement Evaluation for Oil and Gas Reservoirs Using Ultrasonic Images
,” Proceedings of the Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference
, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
, Aug. 30–Sept. 3
.Copyright © 2021 by ASME
You do not currently have access to this content.
